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Psychology is an Academic discipline and APPLIED That involves the Scientific study of mental functions and behaviors. Psychology has the immediate goal of Understanding Both Individuals and groups and by establishing specific researchingã General Principles and Cases, and by many accounts it ultimately Aims to Benefit Society. In this field, a professional practitioner or Researcher is called a psychologist and Can Be Classified or a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, While Also Exploring the physiological and biological processes.we That underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore Concepts Such as perception, cognition, Wikipedia, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships, including Psychological Resilience, Resilience family, and Other Areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations Also Consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical Methods to infer causal and correlational relationships Between Psychosocial variables. In addition, or in Opposition, to employing empirical and deductive Methods, Especially some-clinical and Counseling psychologists-at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and Other Inductive Techniques. Psychology has been described either a "science hub", linking them with Psychological research findings and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, Such as philosophy.
While Psychological Knowledge is often the APPLIED to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is directed Also Towards Understanding and Solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The Majority of psychologists are Involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, Counseling, or school settings. Many would Scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes.we and behavior, and work in university psychology Typically Departments Academic or teach in other settings (eg, medical Schools, Hospitals). Some are Employed in Industrial and Organizational settings, or in other Areas Such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, neither well
Etymology
The word psychology Means literally, "study of the soul" (ψυχή psukhē, "breath, spirit, soul" λογία-and-logia, "study of" or "research"). The Latin word first used by psycholog Was the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in historical book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or Early 16th century. The earlies Known reference to the word psychology in English by Steven Was Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary qual refers to "Anatomy, Which treats of the Body, and Psychology, Which treats of the Soul."
History
Main article: History of psychology
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleaguesâ in historic Psychological Laboratory, The First Of Its Kind. Wundt is credited with setting up psychology or a field of Scientific INQUIRY Independent of the discipline philosophy and biology.
The study of psychology in a context Philosophical date back to the ancient
civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Historians
note That Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle
(Especially In His Treatise De anima), [13] Covered the workings of the mind in
theire writings. Neither Early nor the 4th century BC, Greek physician
Hippocrates theorized Mental
Disorders That Were Of A Physical, Rather than divine, nature.
Structuralism
Main article: structuralism (psychology)
Main article: structuralism (psychology)
German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with Introducing Psychological
discovery into a laboratory setting. Known
nor the "father of experimental psychology", [16] he Founded the
first Psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879. [16] Wundt
Focused on breaking down mental processes.we into the most basic components,
motivated in part by an analogy to Mutual
Advances in chemistry, and Its Successful Investigation of the elements and
structure of the material. Although
Wundt, Himself, Was not a structuralist, historical student Edward Titchener, a
major figure in Early American psychology, Was a structuralist thinker opposed
to functionalist approaches.
Functionalism
Main article: Functional psychology
Main article: Functional psychology
Functionalism formed either a reaction to the theories of the structuralist
school of thought and Was heavily influenced by the work of the American
philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James. James
FELT That Should Have practical value psychology, and psychologists That Should
Find Out How the Mind Can function to a person's benefit. In
His book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1890 he laid the Foundations for
many of the questions psychologists That Would explore for years to come. Other
Major Thinkers functionalist included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.
Other 19th-century Contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, WHO Developed quantitative models of learning and Forgetting at the University of Berlin, and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov-Soviet, WHO discovered in dogs a learning process That was later termed "classical conditioning" Human Beings and APPLIED them.
Other 19th-century Contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, WHO Developed quantitative models of learning and Forgetting at the University of Berlin, and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov-Soviet, WHO discovered in dogs a learning process That was later termed "classical conditioning" Human Beings and APPLIED them.
Starting in the 1950s, the experimental Techniques developed by Wundt,
James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged even BECAM increasingly experimental
psychology cognitivist-Concerned with information and Its processing-and,
Eventually, constituted a part of the Wider cognitive science. [20 ]
In Its Early Years, Was seen this development nor a "revolution,"
[20] or cognitive science Both responded to and reacted against crack-popular
theories, including psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories.
Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until the his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund
Freud Developed psychoanalysis, a method of qual comprised Investigating the
mind and interpreting experience; a systematized set
of theories about human behavior; and
a form of Psychotherapy To Treat Emotional or Psychological distress,
unconscious Especially Conflict. Was Freud's psychoanalytic theory largely
based on interpretive Methods, introspection and clinical observations. It
BECAM Known very well, largely Because it tackled subjects Such as sexuality,
repression, and the unconscious mind nor General Psychological Aspects of
development. Were
these largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a
catalyst for them I swear Discussed openly in polite Society. Clinically,
Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic
interest in dream interpretation.
Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.
Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.
Freud hadd a Significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, Whose
analytical psychology BECAM an alternative form of depth psychology. Other
psychoanalytic Well-Known Scholars of the mid-20th century included
psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these
Thinkers Were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, DW Winnicott,
Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna
Freud. Throughou
the 20th century, psychoanalysis diverse Evolved Into Schools of thought, most
of Which May be classed neither Neo-Freudian.
Were psychoanalytic theory and therapy criticized by psychologists Such as
Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper. Popper,
a philosopher of science, argued That psychoanalysis hadd been misrepresented
or a Scientific discipline, [25] whereas Eysenck said psychoanalytic tenets
That hadd been contradicted by experimental data. By
the end of 20th century, psychology Departments in American Universities Become
hadd scientifically oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and dismissing it
either a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact. [26] meanwhil,
however, researchers in the Emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some
of Freud's ideas on Scientific grounds, [27] While Scholars of the humanities
maintained Freud That Was not a "scientist at all, but ... an
interpreter." [26]
Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism
Skinner's Teaching Machine, a mechanical invention to automate the
task of Programmed instruction
In the United States, behaviorism BECAM the dominant school of thought up during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline That was established in the Early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later BF Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the Ways in Which people might swear predisposed, or conditioned, by theire ENVIRONMENTS to behave in Certain Ways.
In the United States, behaviorism BECAM the dominant school of thought up during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline That was established in the Early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later BF Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the Ways in Which people might swear predisposed, or conditioned, by theire ENVIRONMENTS to behave in Certain Ways.
Was an Early Classical conditioning behaviorist model. It
posited That behavioral tendencies are immediate Determined by various
Environmental Associations Between stimulus and the degree of pleasure or pain
That Follows. Behavioral
Patterns, said, Were Understood to consis of organisms' conditioned responses
to the stimuli in theire environment. The
stimulus Were Held to exer influence in Proportion to theire priorities
repetition or to the previous intensity of Their Associated pain or pleasure. Much
research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, Which Was
increasing in Popularity Grew Physiology or more Sophisticated.
Skinner's behaviorism shared with Its predecessors Toward a Philosophical
inclination positivisme and determinism. [28] He believed That the contents of
the mind Were not open to scrutiny and Scientific Scientific psychology That
Should emphasiz the study of observable behavior. He
Focused on behavior-environment Relations and analyzed over and covert (ie,
private) behavior or a function of the organism interacting with Its
environment. [29] Usually behaviorists rejected or deemphasized dualistic
explanations Such as "mind" or "Consciousness"; and,
in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" That underlies unawareness,
broke deceived of the "contingency-Shaped behaviors" in qual
unawareness Becomes outwardly manifest.
Notable Incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little
Albert experiment qual APPLIED classical conditioning to the Developing human
child, and the clarification of the difference Between classical and operant
conditioning (or instrumental) conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and
said by Skinner.
Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized operant conditioning, through Which
behaviors are strengthened or weakened by theire Consequences.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded neither a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence. [32] Martin Seligman and colleaguesâ discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to Outcomes ("Learned helplessness") That opposed the predictions of behaviorism. [33] [34] But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, spreading in Part Because it generated Successful practical applications. [32] The fall of behaviorism nor an overarching model in psychology, however, Gave way to a new dominant PARADIGM : cognitive approaches. [35]
Humanistic
Main article: Humanistic psychology
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded neither a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence. [32] Martin Seligman and colleaguesâ discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to Outcomes ("Learned helplessness") That opposed the predictions of behaviorism. [33] [34] But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, spreading in Part Because it generated Successful practical applications. [32] The fall of behaviorism nor an overarching model in psychology, however, Gave way to a new dominant PARADIGM : cognitive approaches. [35]
Humanistic
Main article: Humanistic psychology
Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited That humans have a Hierarchy of
Needs, and it makes sense to first fulfill the Basic Needs (food, water etc..)
Before higher-order Needs Can Be Met. [36]
Humanistic psychology Was Developed in the 1950s in reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis Both. [37] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to Glimpse the whole person-not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. [38] Humanism Focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, Such as individual free will, Personal Growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach Was distinguished by Its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and Concern for Positive Growth Rather than Pathology. [Citation needed] Some of the Founders of the humanistic school of thought Were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who 's Hierarchy of Formulated Human Needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to Scientific modes of exploration.
Gestalt
Main article: Gestalt psychology
Humanistic psychology Was Developed in the 1950s in reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis Both. [37] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to Glimpse the whole person-not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. [38] Humanism Focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, Such as individual free will, Personal Growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach Was distinguished by Its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and Concern for Positive Growth Rather than Pathology. [Citation needed] Some of the Founders of the humanistic school of thought Were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who 's Hierarchy of Formulated Human Needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to Scientific modes of exploration.
Gestalt
Main article: Gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-Founded the school of
Gestalt psychology. This
approach is based upon the idea That Individuals experience things or unified
wholes. This
approach to psychology Bega in Germany and Austria up during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather
than breaking down thoughts and behavior to theire smallest element, the
Gestalt position maintains That the whole of experience is IMPORTANT, and the
whole is different from the sum of Its parts.
Gestalt psychology eu Should not confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz
Perls, Which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential Therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an Existential branch of psychology, Which included Existential Psychotherapy, a method of therapy That Operates on the Belief That Inner Conflict Within a person is due to the individual's That Untitled with the givens of existence.
Existential psychologists differed from others often the Classified nor humanistic in theire comparatively neutral view of human nature and in theire relatively positive assessment of anxiety. [39] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting Meaning That Can Be Shaped by Myths, or narrative Patterns, [40] and That It can be encouraged by an Acceptance of the Free Will requisite to an authentic, albeit often the anxious, Regard for Death and Other Future Prospects.
Austrian Existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from the his own internment, [41] and he created a variation of Existential Psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis That focuses on a Will to meaning (in one's life), nor opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of Will to Power or Will to Freud's pleasure. [42]
In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly May be said to belong to the Existential school. [43]
Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology), Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science
Baddeley's model of working memory
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology studies mental That processes.we including Solving problems, perception, memory, and learning. Neither part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to Other discipline including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology When he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "incentive", "response", and "reinforcement". That Chomsky argued Skinner Such ideas-qual hadd Borrowed from Experiments in the laboratory animal-Could be APPLIED to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and Superficial MANNERT. The postulation That humans are born with the instinct or "innate Facility" for acquiring language pos a challenge to the behaviorist position That all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement. [44] Social learning theorists, Such as Albert Bandura, That argued the child's environment Could Make Contributions of Its own to the behaviors of an observant subject. [45]
The Müller-dyed illusion. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes.we from shared Phenomena Such as optical illusions.
Meanwhil, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and Belief in the mental states and representations-ie, the cognition-arid tense had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental Phenomena Psychological Methods to link with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies drawn Were Between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition hadd practical test since World War II, When it aided in the Understanding of weapons operation. [46] By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism hadd Become the dominant PARADIGM of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged nor a popular branch.
Assuming Both the covert mind That Should be studied, and the Scientific Method That Should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set nor Subliminal Concepts Such processing and implicit memory in place of the psychoanalytic unconscious mind the behavioristic or contingency-Shaped behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology Were synthesized to form the Basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of Psychotherapy modified from Techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology Other Was subsumed Along with discipline, Such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover of discipline of cognitive science.
Subfields
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology discipline
Main article: subfields of psychology
.
I bet Psychology encompasses a domain and includes many different approaches to the study of behavior and mental processes.we
Biological
Main articles: Biological Psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.
Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes.we. There are different SPECIALTIES Within behavioral neuroscience. For Example, physiological psychologists use animal models, rats Typically, to study the neural, Genetic, and Cellular Mechanisms That underlie specific behaviors Such as learning and memory and fear responses. [47] Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of Psychological processes.we in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists Conduct Psychological assessments to Determine, for instance, specific Aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by Brain Damage or disease.
Clinical
Clinical psychologists work with Individuals, Children, Families, couples, or small groups and.
Main articles: Clinical Psychology and Counseling Psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the Purpose of Understanding, Preventing, Relieving and psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to Promote Well-Being subjective and personal development. Its practice are central to Psychological Assessment and Psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists ENGAGE May Also in Research, Teaching, Consultation, forensic Testimony, and program development and Administration. [48] Some clinical psychologists may 'focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury- Known this area is neither clinical neuropsychology. In many Countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
The work Performed by clinical psychologists tends to swear influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of a formal relationship qual involv Between professional and client (Usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and Practices are Associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedure intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of Psychological problems, and encourag New Ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, Existential-humanistic, and systems or family therapy. Growing There has been a movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, Especially with an Increased Understanding of Issues Regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings Regarding Psychotherapy, there is evidence That most of the major therapies are about of Equal Effectiveness, with the key common element Being a strong therapeutic alliance. [49] [50] Because of this, more training Programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation. [51] [52] [53] [54] [55]
Cognitive
Main article: Cognitive psychology
Red Green Blue
Blue Purple Purple
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Red Blue Purple
Green Purple Green
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The Stroop effect refers to the fact That Naming the color of the first set of words is Quicker and easier than the second.
Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes.we underlying mental activity. Perception, Wikipedia, reasoning, thinking, problem Solving, memory, learning, language, and emotion are Areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is Associated with a school of thought Known nor cognitivism, Whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, Informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.
On a broader level, cognitive science is an Interdisciplinary Enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, Linguists, Human-Computer Interaction, Computational neuroscience, logicians and Social Scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate Phenomena of interest. Computational models provid a tool for studying the functional Organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides Measures of brain activity.
Comparative
The common Chimpanzee Can use tools. This Chimpanzee is using a stick in order to get food.
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Comparative psychology refers to the Scientific study of the behavior and mental processes.we of non-human animals, nor Especially these Relate to the phylogenetic history, Adaptive Significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area addresses many different issues, many different uses Methods, and explores the behavior of many different species, from insects to Primates. It is Closely related to Other discipline That study animal behavior Such as ethology. [56] Research in comparative psychology sometimes Appears to shed light on human behavior, but some Attempts to connect the two have been quite Controversial, for Example the EO Wilson's Sociobiology of . [57] Animal models are used to study neural often the processes.we related to human behavior, eg in cognitive neuroscience.
Developmental
Main article: Developmental psychology
Developmental psychologists ENGAGE Would a child with a book and said make observations based on how the child interacts with the object.
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology Seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and ACT Within the world and how these change even broke processes.we age. May this focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or neural development. WHO researchers study children use a number of unique research Methods to make observations in natural settings or to say ENGAGE in experimental tasks. Such tasks often the games resemble Specially designed and Activities That Both are enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have devised clever Even Methods to study the mental processes.we of Infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists Also processes.we throughou study aging and the life span, Other Especially at times of rapid change (Such as Adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of Psychological theories to inform research theire.
Educational and school
Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology
An Example of an item from a cognitive abilities test used in Educational psychology.
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in Educational settings, the Educational Effectiveness of Interventions, the psychology of Teaching, and the social psychology of Schools or Organizations. The work of child psychologists Lev Vygotsky Such as Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been Influential in Creating Teaching Methods and Educational Practices. Educational psychology is often the Programs included in teacher education in places Such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
School psychology Combines Educational Principles from psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat learning Students with disabilities; to foster the Intellectual Growth of gifted Students; to Facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to Promote safe, supportive, and effective learning ENVIRONMENTS. School psychologists are trained in Educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, Prevention, and Consultation, and many have eXtensive training in research. [58]
Evolutionary
Main article: Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology examines Psychological traits-Such as memory, perception, or language-from a modern perspective Evolutionary. Which It Seeks to Identify Human Evolved Psychological traits are adaptations, that is, the functional Products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists Suggest That Evolved Psychological adaptations to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral ENVIRONMENTS. By focusing on the evolution of Psychological traits and theire adaptive functions, it offers COMPLEMENTARY explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by Other Areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" Questions, Rather than proximate or "how?" questions).
Industrial-Organizational
Main article: Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (I-O) applies Psychological Concepts and Methods to Optimize Human Potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I-O psychology, applies the Methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating Workers. I-O psychology's Other subfield, Organizational psychology, examines the effects of work ENVIRONMENTS and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity. [59]
Personality
Main article: Personality psychology
Personality psychology is Concerned with Enduring Patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion-commonly referred to neither personality-in Individuals. Theories of personality vary Schools Across Psychological and different orientations. They Carry Such different issues nor Assumptions about the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego. [60] Train theorists, in contrast, attempt to Analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the Statistical method of factor analysis. The number of Proposed traits has varied widely. An Early model Proposed by Hans Eysenck, That there are no qual compris three human personality traits: Extraversion-Introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell Proposed a theory of 16 personality Factors. Dimensional models of personality are the receiving increasing support, and some version of dimensional assessment Will Be Forthcoming included in the DSM-V.
Social
Main article: Social psychology
See also: Social psychology (sociologist)
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
Social psychology is the study of how humans think about Each Other and how broke Relate to Each Other. Such social psychologists study topics or the influence of others on an individual's behavior (eg conformity, persuasion), and the formation of Beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about Other People. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, Distort or social information. The study of Group Dynamics Reveals information about the nature and Potential optimization of Leadership, communication, and Other Phenomena That at Least emerge at the microsocial level. In recent years, many social psychologists have increasingly Become Interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the Interaction of Both individual and social variables in accounting for behavior. The study of human Society, is therefore a POTENTIALLY Valuable source of information about the causes of Psychiatric Disorder. Some of the sociological CONCEPTS APPLIED to Psychiatric Disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social and total institution. [61]
Positive
Main article: Positive psychology
Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a discipline That utilizes evidence-based Scientific Methods to Study Factors That Contribute to human happiness and strength. Different from clinical psychology, positive psychology is Concerned with Improving the Mental Well-Being of Healthy Clients. Positive Psychological Interventions Received now have tentative support for theire beneficial effects on Clients. In 2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to Positive Psychological Interventions, Such as gratitude journaling and the Physical expression of gratitude. There is, however, a need for further research on the effects of Interventions. Positive Psychological Interventions have been limited in Scope, but theire effects are thought to swear Superior to That of placebos, Especially with Regard to Helping People with body image problems.
Research Methods
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential Therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an Existential branch of psychology, Which included Existential Psychotherapy, a method of therapy That Operates on the Belief That Inner Conflict Within a person is due to the individual's That Untitled with the givens of existence.
Existential psychologists differed from others often the Classified nor humanistic in theire comparatively neutral view of human nature and in theire relatively positive assessment of anxiety. [39] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting Meaning That Can Be Shaped by Myths, or narrative Patterns, [40] and That It can be encouraged by an Acceptance of the Free Will requisite to an authentic, albeit often the anxious, Regard for Death and Other Future Prospects.
Austrian Existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from the his own internment, [41] and he created a variation of Existential Psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis That focuses on a Will to meaning (in one's life), nor opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of Will to Power or Will to Freud's pleasure. [42]
In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly May be said to belong to the Existential school. [43]
Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology), Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science
Baddeley's model of working memory
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology studies mental That processes.we including Solving problems, perception, memory, and learning. Neither part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to Other discipline including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology When he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "incentive", "response", and "reinforcement". That Chomsky argued Skinner Such ideas-qual hadd Borrowed from Experiments in the laboratory animal-Could be APPLIED to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and Superficial MANNERT. The postulation That humans are born with the instinct or "innate Facility" for acquiring language pos a challenge to the behaviorist position That all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement. [44] Social learning theorists, Such as Albert Bandura, That argued the child's environment Could Make Contributions of Its own to the behaviors of an observant subject. [45]
The Müller-dyed illusion. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes.we from shared Phenomena Such as optical illusions.
Meanwhil, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and Belief in the mental states and representations-ie, the cognition-arid tense had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental Phenomena Psychological Methods to link with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies drawn Were Between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition hadd practical test since World War II, When it aided in the Understanding of weapons operation. [46] By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism hadd Become the dominant PARADIGM of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged nor a popular branch.
Assuming Both the covert mind That Should be studied, and the Scientific Method That Should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set nor Subliminal Concepts Such processing and implicit memory in place of the psychoanalytic unconscious mind the behavioristic or contingency-Shaped behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology Were synthesized to form the Basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of Psychotherapy modified from Techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology Other Was subsumed Along with discipline, Such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover of discipline of cognitive science.
Subfields
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology discipline
Main article: subfields of psychology
.
I bet Psychology encompasses a domain and includes many different approaches to the study of behavior and mental processes.we
Biological
Main articles: Biological Psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.
Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes.we. There are different SPECIALTIES Within behavioral neuroscience. For Example, physiological psychologists use animal models, rats Typically, to study the neural, Genetic, and Cellular Mechanisms That underlie specific behaviors Such as learning and memory and fear responses. [47] Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of Psychological processes.we in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists Conduct Psychological assessments to Determine, for instance, specific Aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by Brain Damage or disease.
Clinical
Clinical psychologists work with Individuals, Children, Families, couples, or small groups and.
Main articles: Clinical Psychology and Counseling Psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the Purpose of Understanding, Preventing, Relieving and psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to Promote Well-Being subjective and personal development. Its practice are central to Psychological Assessment and Psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists ENGAGE May Also in Research, Teaching, Consultation, forensic Testimony, and program development and Administration. [48] Some clinical psychologists may 'focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury- Known this area is neither clinical neuropsychology. In many Countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
The work Performed by clinical psychologists tends to swear influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of a formal relationship qual involv Between professional and client (Usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and Practices are Associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedure intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of Psychological problems, and encourag New Ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, Existential-humanistic, and systems or family therapy. Growing There has been a movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, Especially with an Increased Understanding of Issues Regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings Regarding Psychotherapy, there is evidence That most of the major therapies are about of Equal Effectiveness, with the key common element Being a strong therapeutic alliance. [49] [50] Because of this, more training Programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation. [51] [52] [53] [54] [55]
Cognitive
Main article: Cognitive psychology
Red Green Blue
Blue Purple Purple
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The Stroop effect refers to the fact That Naming the color of the first set of words is Quicker and easier than the second.
Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes.we underlying mental activity. Perception, Wikipedia, reasoning, thinking, problem Solving, memory, learning, language, and emotion are Areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is Associated with a school of thought Known nor cognitivism, Whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, Informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.
On a broader level, cognitive science is an Interdisciplinary Enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, Linguists, Human-Computer Interaction, Computational neuroscience, logicians and Social Scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate Phenomena of interest. Computational models provid a tool for studying the functional Organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides Measures of brain activity.
Comparative
The common Chimpanzee Can use tools. This Chimpanzee is using a stick in order to get food.
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Comparative psychology refers to the Scientific study of the behavior and mental processes.we of non-human animals, nor Especially these Relate to the phylogenetic history, Adaptive Significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area addresses many different issues, many different uses Methods, and explores the behavior of many different species, from insects to Primates. It is Closely related to Other discipline That study animal behavior Such as ethology. [56] Research in comparative psychology sometimes Appears to shed light on human behavior, but some Attempts to connect the two have been quite Controversial, for Example the EO Wilson's Sociobiology of . [57] Animal models are used to study neural often the processes.we related to human behavior, eg in cognitive neuroscience.
Developmental
Main article: Developmental psychology
Developmental psychologists ENGAGE Would a child with a book and said make observations based on how the child interacts with the object.
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology Seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and ACT Within the world and how these change even broke processes.we age. May this focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or neural development. WHO researchers study children use a number of unique research Methods to make observations in natural settings or to say ENGAGE in experimental tasks. Such tasks often the games resemble Specially designed and Activities That Both are enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have devised clever Even Methods to study the mental processes.we of Infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists Also processes.we throughou study aging and the life span, Other Especially at times of rapid change (Such as Adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of Psychological theories to inform research theire.
Educational and school
Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology
An Example of an item from a cognitive abilities test used in Educational psychology.
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in Educational settings, the Educational Effectiveness of Interventions, the psychology of Teaching, and the social psychology of Schools or Organizations. The work of child psychologists Lev Vygotsky Such as Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been Influential in Creating Teaching Methods and Educational Practices. Educational psychology is often the Programs included in teacher education in places Such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
School psychology Combines Educational Principles from psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat learning Students with disabilities; to foster the Intellectual Growth of gifted Students; to Facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to Promote safe, supportive, and effective learning ENVIRONMENTS. School psychologists are trained in Educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, Prevention, and Consultation, and many have eXtensive training in research. [58]
Evolutionary
Main article: Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology examines Psychological traits-Such as memory, perception, or language-from a modern perspective Evolutionary. Which It Seeks to Identify Human Evolved Psychological traits are adaptations, that is, the functional Products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists Suggest That Evolved Psychological adaptations to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral ENVIRONMENTS. By focusing on the evolution of Psychological traits and theire adaptive functions, it offers COMPLEMENTARY explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by Other Areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" Questions, Rather than proximate or "how?" questions).
Industrial-Organizational
Main article: Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (I-O) applies Psychological Concepts and Methods to Optimize Human Potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I-O psychology, applies the Methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating Workers. I-O psychology's Other subfield, Organizational psychology, examines the effects of work ENVIRONMENTS and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity. [59]
Personality
Main article: Personality psychology
Personality psychology is Concerned with Enduring Patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion-commonly referred to neither personality-in Individuals. Theories of personality vary Schools Across Psychological and different orientations. They Carry Such different issues nor Assumptions about the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego. [60] Train theorists, in contrast, attempt to Analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the Statistical method of factor analysis. The number of Proposed traits has varied widely. An Early model Proposed by Hans Eysenck, That there are no qual compris three human personality traits: Extraversion-Introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell Proposed a theory of 16 personality Factors. Dimensional models of personality are the receiving increasing support, and some version of dimensional assessment Will Be Forthcoming included in the DSM-V.
Social
Main article: Social psychology
See also: Social psychology (sociologist)
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
Social psychology is the study of how humans think about Each Other and how broke Relate to Each Other. Such social psychologists study topics or the influence of others on an individual's behavior (eg conformity, persuasion), and the formation of Beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about Other People. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, Distort or social information. The study of Group Dynamics Reveals information about the nature and Potential optimization of Leadership, communication, and Other Phenomena That at Least emerge at the microsocial level. In recent years, many social psychologists have increasingly Become Interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the Interaction of Both individual and social variables in accounting for behavior. The study of human Society, is therefore a POTENTIALLY Valuable source of information about the causes of Psychiatric Disorder. Some of the sociological CONCEPTS APPLIED to Psychiatric Disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social and total institution. [61]
Positive
Main article: Positive psychology
Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a discipline That utilizes evidence-based Scientific Methods to Study Factors That Contribute to human happiness and strength. Different from clinical psychology, positive psychology is Concerned with Improving the Mental Well-Being of Healthy Clients. Positive Psychological Interventions Received now have tentative support for theire beneficial effects on Clients. In 2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to Positive Psychological Interventions, Such as gratitude journaling and the Physical expression of gratitude. There is, however, a need for further research on the effects of Interventions. Positive Psychological Interventions have been limited in Scope, but theire effects are thought to swear Superior to That of placebos, Especially with Regard to Helping People with body image problems.
Research Methods
Main article: Psychological research
Psychology tends to swear eclectic, drawing on Cards from Other fields to help understand and Psychological Phenomena Explain. Additionally, psychologists eXtensive make use of the three modes of inferences That Were Identified by CS Peirce: deduction, induction, and Abduction (hypothesis generation). While often the employing deductive-nomological reasoning, broke Also rely on Inductive reasoning to Generate explanations. For Example, Evolutionary psychologists attempt to Explain Psychological traits-Such as memory, perception, or language-as adaptations, that is, neither the functional Products of natural selection or sexual selection.
Psychologists May Conduct basic research aiming for further Understanding in. A particular area of interest in psychology, or APPLIED Conduct research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or Other Areas. Masters level clinical Programs aim to train Methods Students in Both research and evidence-based practice. Professional Associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research and professional practice Methodology. In addition, depending on the country, state or region, Psychological services and the title "psychologist" May be governed by statute and psychologists who 'offer services to the public are required to swear Usually Licensed.
Qualitative and quantitative research
Research In most Areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the Standards of the Scientific method. Psychological researchers seek the Emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, using quantitative or Qualitative Methods (or Both).
Psychological Research Methods Qualitative Interviews include, first-hand Observation, and Observation and attended. Creswell (2003) identifies five main Possibilities for Qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and Grounded Theory. Qualitative researchers [62] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, social or the structure. Similar hermeneutic and critical Aims Also have been served by "quantitative Methods", nor in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting seats [citation needed] or Stanley Milgram's studies of Obedience to Authority.
Quantitative Psychological research lends Itself to the Statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of constructs is an essential IMPORTANT part of these research designs. Statistical Methods include the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
Controlled Experiments
Main article: Experiment
Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the Consort 2010 Statement [63]
Experimental Psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under Controlled Conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the Scientific method to understand behavior. Experimenters use Several Types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or functional relationships EVALUATE (Inductive approach). A true experiment with random allocation of subjects to Conditions allows researchers to infer causal relationships Between different Aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are Controlled by the experimenter (Independent variable) and another variable is Measured in response to different Conditions (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the primary research in many Methods Areas of psychology, particularly cognitive / psychonomics, Mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology / cognitive neuroscience.
Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely Informed and volun consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code established Was Because Of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most Countries (and Scientific journals) Adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 Adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these Measures encouraged researchers to Obtain Informed consent from Human Participants in experimental studies. A number of Influential studies led to the Establishment of this rule; Such studies included the MIT and FERNALD School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide Tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of Obedience to Authority.
Survey questionnaires
Main article: Statistical survey
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for Measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of Other Psychological topics. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are conducted over the phone ALSO or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are used in research for Being Its convenience and Also to get a wide range of Participants. Similar Also Methodology is used in APPLIED setting, Such as clinical assessment and Personnel assessment.
Longitudinal studies
Longitudinal studies are often the messages in psychology to study developmental trends Across the life span, and in sociologist to study lifetimes or life events throughou Generations. The reason for this is cross-sectional That Unlike studies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the Differences Observed in. Those people are less Likely to Be the Result of Cultural Differences Across Generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate and are broke Other APPLIED in various fields.
Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense That broke Observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued That broke with may have less power to detect causal relationships than would Experiments. They Also Suffer methodological Limitations Such as from selective attrition Because people with similar characteristics May be More Likely to drop out of the study making it difficult to Analyze.
Experiments are some longitudinal studies, called Repeated-Measures Experiments. Psychologists often the use the crossover design to Reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to Reduce the number of subjects.
Observation in natural settings
Phineas P. Gage Which Survived an accident in a large iron rod driven completely through historical Was head, destroying much of the his brain's left frontal lobes, and is Remembered for that injury's effects on historic REPORTED personality and behavior. [64]
Main article: Naturalistic Observation
Just nor Jane Goodall Chimpanzee studied social and family life by Careful Observation of Chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists Conduct Ongoing observational studies of human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the Participants are Aware They are Being Observed, and Other times the Participants will not know They are Being Observed. Strict Ethical Guidelines Must Be Followed When Being covert Observation is carried out.
Qualitative and descriptive research
Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the VAST network of neurons in the human brain.
Main article: Qualitative research
Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs Such as the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of Individuals Known is neither descriptive research. Can Be descriptive research Qualitative or quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research That is Focused on observing and describing events occure broke even, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of Discovering and Understanding Phenomena That might have been missed if only more cursory Examinations have been made.
Methods neuropsychological
Main article: Neuropsychology
A rat undergoing a Morris water navigation test used in behavioral neuroscience to study the role of the hippocampus in Spatial learning and memory.
Methods neuropsychological research studies are employedlunpaid in. That Examine the Relation of mental activity and behavior to the structure and function of the brain. Methods These include testing (eg, the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and Transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Computational modeling
The experimenter (E) Orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the Latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), Who is actually an actor and confederation. The subject believes That for Each wrong answer, the learner Was the receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there Were No such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederation set up a tape recorder Integrated with the electro-shock generator, pre-qual played for Recorded sounds etc. Each shock level. [65]
Computational modeling [66] is a tool often the Mathematical used in psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate A particular behavior using a computer. This method has Several Advantages. Since modern computers process information Extremely quickly, many Simulations Can Be Run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of Statistical power. Also modeling allows psychologists to visualiza hypotheses about the functional Organization of mental events could not swear That Directly Observed in a human.
Several different Types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, Which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other Types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.
Animal studies
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Investigating Animal Experiments aid in many Aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstration classical conditioning. Non-human Primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and Other rodents are often the messages in Psychological Experiments. Ideally, Controlled Experiments Independent Introduce only one variable at a time, in order to ascertain Its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human ENVIRONMENTS and Genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many Factors, that it is difficult to control IMPORTANT variables for human subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models. [67]
Criticism
Theory
Criticisms of Psychological research often the Perceptions That come from it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique [68] Was implied psychology overall in a pre-PARADIGM state, lacking the Agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences chemistry and physics Such as.
Because some Areas of psychology rely on research Methods Such as surveys and questionnaires, Critics have asserted That psychology is not an objective science. Other psychologists Concepts That are Interested in, Such as personality, thinking, and emotion, can not swear Directly Measured [69] and are often the inferred from subjective self-reports, Which May be problematic. [70] [71]
Some Critics view Statistical hypothesis testing or misplaced. Research [Which?] That has documented many psychologists confuse Statistical Significance with practical importance. Statistically Significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples. [72] Some psychologists have responded with an Increased use of effect size statistics, Rather than sole RELIANCE on the Fisherian p <.05 Significance criterion (whereby an Observed difference is deemed "statistically Significant "if an effect of size or larger That Would occure with 5%-or-less probability in Independent replications, Assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference Between the Treatments). [citation needed] False positive conclusions, often the resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's own confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a Certain degree of skepticism on the part of readers. [73]
Sometimes the debates Comes From Within psychology, for Example Between laboratory-oriented researchers and practitioners Such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic about the Effectiveness and Relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic Strategies. [74]
Practice
Some Observers perceive a Gap Between Theory and Its Scientific application-in Particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical Practices. [75] Critics say there has been an Increase in the number of mental health training Programs That will not instill Scientific competence. [ 76] asserts skeptical That One Practices, Such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; Techniques including memory-recovery body work; and Other therapies, Such as rebirthing and reparenting, May be dubious or dangerous Eve, on Despite Popularity theire. [77] In 1984, Allen Neuringer made a similar point [vague] Regarding the experimental analysis of behavior. [78]
Ethical Standards
Current Ethical Standards of psychology Would not permit them swear some studies conducted today. Would these human studies violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report. That Ethical Current guidelines state using non-human animals for personal use is only acceptable Scientific When The harm (Physical or Psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the Benefits of the research. [79] Keeping this in mind, psychologists Can use on animals research Techniques That could not be used on humans.
An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised Raised questions about the ethics of Scientific experimentation Because of the extreme Emotional stress suffered by the Participants. It Measured the willingness of study Participants to obey an Authority figure who 'tell instructed to Perform Acts That conflicted with theire own Conscience. [80]
Harry Harlow drew condemnation for the his "Pit of Despair" Experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the 1970s. [81] The aim of the research Was to Produce an animal model of clinical depression. Also Harlow devised what he called a "rape rack", to Which the female isolates Were tied in normal monkey mating and Defence. [82] In 1974, American literary Critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleaguesâ go on torturing theire nonhuman Primates decade after decade, invariably Proving What We Knew in advance-all social creatures That Can Be Destroyed by destroying theire Social Ties. " That he writes Harlow made no mention of the Criticism of the morality of historical work. [83]
University Psychology Departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-Being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain Approval of Their Research Projects Before conducting any experiment to protect the Interests of Participants human and laboratory animals. [84]
Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling Examined the results of Psychological studies and discovered that 97% of say theire supported initial hypotheses, implying a Possible publication bias. [85] [86] [87] Similarly, Fanelli (2010) [88] found That 91.5 % of Psychiatry / psychology studies the effects Confirmed broke Were looking for, and concluded That the odds of this happening (a Positive Result) around Was Five Times Higher than in fields Such as space-or Geosciences. That this is Fanelli argues Because researchers in "SOFTER" Have Fewer constraints sciences to theire conscious and unconscious biases.
In 2010, a group of researchers REPORTED a systemic bias in psychology studies Towards Weird ("western, educated, industrialized, rich and for democratic") subjects. [89] Although only 1/8 people fall into the weird Worldwide Classification, the researchers claimed That 60-90% of psychology studies are Performed on weird subjects. The article Gave That examples of results differ significantly Weird Between subjects and tribal cultures, including the Müller-dyed illusion.
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Although psychoanalysis and Other forms of depth psychology are most Typically Associated with the unconscious mind, behaviorists Consider Such Phenomena and operant conditioning or classical conditioning, While cognitivists explore implicit memory, automaticity, and Subliminal messages, all of Which are Understood either to bypass or to occure Patriarchate of conscious effort basis or Wikipedia. Indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapists theire Counsel Clients To Become Aware Patterns of maladaptive thought, the nature of the qual Clients Previously hadd not been conscious.
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Seligman, M.E.P. (1995). "The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy: The Consumer Reports study." American Psychologist 50 (12): 965-74. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.50.12.965. PMID 8561380.
Shettleworth, SJ (2010) Cognition, Evolution and Behavior (2nd Ed), New York: Oxford.
Wilson, E.O. (1978) On Human Nature Page x, Cambridge, MA: Harvard
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Blum 1994, p. 95 Blum, 2002, pp. 218-19. Blum 1994, p. 95: "... the most Controversial experiment to come out of the Wisconsin laboratory, a device That Harlow insisted on calling the 'Pit of Despair.'"
Blum, Deborah. Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. Perseus Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-7382-0278-9
Booth, Wayne C. Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of assent, Volume 5, of the University of Notre Dame, Ward-Phillips lectures in English language and literature, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 114. Booth is explicitly Discussing this experiment. His next sentence is, "His most recent Outrage consists of placing monkeys in 'solitary' for twenty days-what he calls a 'vertical chamber apparatus designed on an intuitive .... Basis' to Produce' a state of helplessness and hopelessness, Sunken in a well of Despair. '"
The American Psychological Society: Responsible Conduct of Research
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The weirdest people in the world? Henrich, J., Heine, S., & Norenzayan, A. (2011). Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-135.
Psychology tends to swear eclectic, drawing on Cards from Other fields to help understand and Psychological Phenomena Explain. Additionally, psychologists eXtensive make use of the three modes of inferences That Were Identified by CS Peirce: deduction, induction, and Abduction (hypothesis generation). While often the employing deductive-nomological reasoning, broke Also rely on Inductive reasoning to Generate explanations. For Example, Evolutionary psychologists attempt to Explain Psychological traits-Such as memory, perception, or language-as adaptations, that is, neither the functional Products of natural selection or sexual selection.
Psychologists May Conduct basic research aiming for further Understanding in. A particular area of interest in psychology, or APPLIED Conduct research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or Other Areas. Masters level clinical Programs aim to train Methods Students in Both research and evidence-based practice. Professional Associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research and professional practice Methodology. In addition, depending on the country, state or region, Psychological services and the title "psychologist" May be governed by statute and psychologists who 'offer services to the public are required to swear Usually Licensed.
Qualitative and quantitative research
Research In most Areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the Standards of the Scientific method. Psychological researchers seek the Emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, using quantitative or Qualitative Methods (or Both).
Psychological Research Methods Qualitative Interviews include, first-hand Observation, and Observation and attended. Creswell (2003) identifies five main Possibilities for Qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and Grounded Theory. Qualitative researchers [62] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, social or the structure. Similar hermeneutic and critical Aims Also have been served by "quantitative Methods", nor in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting seats [citation needed] or Stanley Milgram's studies of Obedience to Authority.
Quantitative Psychological research lends Itself to the Statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of constructs is an essential IMPORTANT part of these research designs. Statistical Methods include the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
Controlled Experiments
Main article: Experiment
Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the Consort 2010 Statement [63]
Experimental Psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under Controlled Conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the Scientific method to understand behavior. Experimenters use Several Types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or functional relationships EVALUATE (Inductive approach). A true experiment with random allocation of subjects to Conditions allows researchers to infer causal relationships Between different Aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are Controlled by the experimenter (Independent variable) and another variable is Measured in response to different Conditions (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the primary research in many Methods Areas of psychology, particularly cognitive / psychonomics, Mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology / cognitive neuroscience.
Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely Informed and volun consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code established Was Because Of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most Countries (and Scientific journals) Adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 Adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these Measures encouraged researchers to Obtain Informed consent from Human Participants in experimental studies. A number of Influential studies led to the Establishment of this rule; Such studies included the MIT and FERNALD School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide Tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of Obedience to Authority.
Survey questionnaires
Main article: Statistical survey
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for Measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of Other Psychological topics. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are conducted over the phone ALSO or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are used in research for Being Its convenience and Also to get a wide range of Participants. Similar Also Methodology is used in APPLIED setting, Such as clinical assessment and Personnel assessment.
Longitudinal studies
Longitudinal studies are often the messages in psychology to study developmental trends Across the life span, and in sociologist to study lifetimes or life events throughou Generations. The reason for this is cross-sectional That Unlike studies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the Differences Observed in. Those people are less Likely to Be the Result of Cultural Differences Across Generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate and are broke Other APPLIED in various fields.
Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense That broke Observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued That broke with may have less power to detect causal relationships than would Experiments. They Also Suffer methodological Limitations Such as from selective attrition Because people with similar characteristics May be More Likely to drop out of the study making it difficult to Analyze.
Experiments are some longitudinal studies, called Repeated-Measures Experiments. Psychologists often the use the crossover design to Reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to Reduce the number of subjects.
Observation in natural settings
Phineas P. Gage Which Survived an accident in a large iron rod driven completely through historical Was head, destroying much of the his brain's left frontal lobes, and is Remembered for that injury's effects on historic REPORTED personality and behavior. [64]
Main article: Naturalistic Observation
Just nor Jane Goodall Chimpanzee studied social and family life by Careful Observation of Chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists Conduct Ongoing observational studies of human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the Participants are Aware They are Being Observed, and Other times the Participants will not know They are Being Observed. Strict Ethical Guidelines Must Be Followed When Being covert Observation is carried out.
Qualitative and descriptive research
Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the VAST network of neurons in the human brain.
Main article: Qualitative research
Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs Such as the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of Individuals Known is neither descriptive research. Can Be descriptive research Qualitative or quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research That is Focused on observing and describing events occure broke even, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of Discovering and Understanding Phenomena That might have been missed if only more cursory Examinations have been made.
Methods neuropsychological
Main article: Neuropsychology
A rat undergoing a Morris water navigation test used in behavioral neuroscience to study the role of the hippocampus in Spatial learning and memory.
Methods neuropsychological research studies are employedlunpaid in. That Examine the Relation of mental activity and behavior to the structure and function of the brain. Methods These include testing (eg, the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and Transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Computational modeling
The experimenter (E) Orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the Latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), Who is actually an actor and confederation. The subject believes That for Each wrong answer, the learner Was the receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there Were No such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederation set up a tape recorder Integrated with the electro-shock generator, pre-qual played for Recorded sounds etc. Each shock level. [65]
Computational modeling [66] is a tool often the Mathematical used in psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate A particular behavior using a computer. This method has Several Advantages. Since modern computers process information Extremely quickly, many Simulations Can Be Run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of Statistical power. Also modeling allows psychologists to visualiza hypotheses about the functional Organization of mental events could not swear That Directly Observed in a human.
Several different Types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, Which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other Types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.
Animal studies
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Investigating Animal Experiments aid in many Aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstration classical conditioning. Non-human Primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and Other rodents are often the messages in Psychological Experiments. Ideally, Controlled Experiments Independent Introduce only one variable at a time, in order to ascertain Its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human ENVIRONMENTS and Genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many Factors, that it is difficult to control IMPORTANT variables for human subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models. [67]
Criticism
Theory
Criticisms of Psychological research often the Perceptions That come from it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique [68] Was implied psychology overall in a pre-PARADIGM state, lacking the Agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences chemistry and physics Such as.
Because some Areas of psychology rely on research Methods Such as surveys and questionnaires, Critics have asserted That psychology is not an objective science. Other psychologists Concepts That are Interested in, Such as personality, thinking, and emotion, can not swear Directly Measured [69] and are often the inferred from subjective self-reports, Which May be problematic. [70] [71]
Some Critics view Statistical hypothesis testing or misplaced. Research [Which?] That has documented many psychologists confuse Statistical Significance with practical importance. Statistically Significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples. [72] Some psychologists have responded with an Increased use of effect size statistics, Rather than sole RELIANCE on the Fisherian p <.05 Significance criterion (whereby an Observed difference is deemed "statistically Significant "if an effect of size or larger That Would occure with 5%-or-less probability in Independent replications, Assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference Between the Treatments). [citation needed] False positive conclusions, often the resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's own confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a Certain degree of skepticism on the part of readers. [73]
Sometimes the debates Comes From Within psychology, for Example Between laboratory-oriented researchers and practitioners Such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic about the Effectiveness and Relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic Strategies. [74]
Practice
Some Observers perceive a Gap Between Theory and Its Scientific application-in Particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical Practices. [75] Critics say there has been an Increase in the number of mental health training Programs That will not instill Scientific competence. [ 76] asserts skeptical That One Practices, Such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; Techniques including memory-recovery body work; and Other therapies, Such as rebirthing and reparenting, May be dubious or dangerous Eve, on Despite Popularity theire. [77] In 1984, Allen Neuringer made a similar point [vague] Regarding the experimental analysis of behavior. [78]
Ethical Standards
Current Ethical Standards of psychology Would not permit them swear some studies conducted today. Would these human studies violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report. That Ethical Current guidelines state using non-human animals for personal use is only acceptable Scientific When The harm (Physical or Psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the Benefits of the research. [79] Keeping this in mind, psychologists Can use on animals research Techniques That could not be used on humans.
An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised Raised questions about the ethics of Scientific experimentation Because of the extreme Emotional stress suffered by the Participants. It Measured the willingness of study Participants to obey an Authority figure who 'tell instructed to Perform Acts That conflicted with theire own Conscience. [80]
Harry Harlow drew condemnation for the his "Pit of Despair" Experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the 1970s. [81] The aim of the research Was to Produce an animal model of clinical depression. Also Harlow devised what he called a "rape rack", to Which the female isolates Were tied in normal monkey mating and Defence. [82] In 1974, American literary Critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleaguesâ go on torturing theire nonhuman Primates decade after decade, invariably Proving What We Knew in advance-all social creatures That Can Be Destroyed by destroying theire Social Ties. " That he writes Harlow made no mention of the Criticism of the morality of historical work. [83]
University Psychology Departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-Being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain Approval of Their Research Projects Before conducting any experiment to protect the Interests of Participants human and laboratory animals. [84]
Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling Examined the results of Psychological studies and discovered that 97% of say theire supported initial hypotheses, implying a Possible publication bias. [85] [86] [87] Similarly, Fanelli (2010) [88] found That 91.5 % of Psychiatry / psychology studies the effects Confirmed broke Were looking for, and concluded That the odds of this happening (a Positive Result) around Was Five Times Higher than in fields Such as space-or Geosciences. That this is Fanelli argues Because researchers in "SOFTER" Have Fewer constraints sciences to theire conscious and unconscious biases.
In 2010, a group of researchers REPORTED a systemic bias in psychology studies Towards Weird ("western, educated, industrialized, rich and for democratic") subjects. [89] Although only 1/8 people fall into the weird Worldwide Classification, the researchers claimed That 60-90% of psychology studies are Performed on weird subjects. The article Gave That examples of results differ significantly Weird Between subjects and tribal cultures, including the Müller-dyed illusion.
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